Archive for July, 2009

Spotted on our property Monte Horizonte  

The Sardinian Warbler, Sylvia melanocephala, is a common and widespread typical warbler from the Mediterranean region.

Like most Sylvia species, it has distinct male and female plumages. The adult male has a grey back, whitish underparts, black head, white throat and red eyes. Plumages are somewhat variable even in the same locality, with the intensity of a reddish hue on upper- and/or underside varies from absent to (in some subspecies) pronounced. The female is mainly brown above and buff below, with a grey head.

Sardinian Warbler, Kleine Zwartkop, Samtkopfgrasmucke, Toutinegra de cabeça preta, Curruca cabecinegra

The Sardinian Warbler's song is fast and rattling, and is very characteristic of the Mediterranean areas where this bird breeds.

It breeds in the southernmost areas of Europe and just into Asia in Turkey and the eastern end of the Mediterranean. This small passerine bird, unlike most "warblers", is not particularly migratory, but some birds winter in north Africa, and it occurs as a vagrant well away from the breeding range, as far as Great Britain.

This is a bird of open country and cultivation, with bushes for nesting. The nest is built in low shrub or brambles, and 3-6 eggs are laid. Like most "warblers", it is insectivorous, but will also take berries and other soft fruit.

Together with Menetries' Warbler it forms a superspecies. Both thave white malar areas and light throats, and otherwise black theads in adult males, as well as a naked ring around the eye. The Subalpine Warbler, which seems the superspecies' closest relative, has a dark throat and breast and a dark gray upper head in males, but otherwise shares these characters. These three species are related to a dark-throated superspecies consisting of Rüppell's Warbler and the Cyprus Warbler, which also share the white malar area with blackish above.

This bird may be considered a superspecies, divided into the western Sylvia melanocephala and Sylvia momus from the more arid regions of the Near East and adjacent Africa.

The geographical variation in the Sardinian Warbler conforms to some extent with Gloger's Rule, though not as strongly as in some other typical warblers. The validity of leucogastra and norissae is not accepted by some authors, and valverdei has been described very recently. On the other hand, leucogastra might be more than one subspecies.

Sylvia melanocephala melanocephala (Gmelin, 1789)
Iberia across the northern Mediterranean to western Turkey. Extends into the Maghreb from Iberia, and into Libya from Italy via Sicily. Migrates to the Sahel and oases in the Sahara in winter.
Large, long wings, tail tip rather pointed. A dark form, usually lacking any reddish in males but flanks extensively grey. Females' uppersides vary between deep olive brown and greyish olive.

Sylvia melanocephala leucogastra (Ledru, 1810) – often included in melanocephala; phylogenetic status requires review.
Canary Islands, resident, probably some vagrancy between eastern islands and Maghreb.
Medium size, short-winged and large-billed. Tenerife and La Palma (western) birds are most distinct, being dark above with some rusty/beige hue on the underside in males. Eastern birds (Fuerteventura, Lanzarote and Gran Canaria) are more like melanocephala and momus but differ in measurements.

Sylvia melanocephala momus (Hemprich & Ehrenberg, 1833)
Near East. Resident, some local movements.
Smallish, short-winged. Varies between brownish grey and rusty above; underside almost always has reddish hue. Females rusty to rusty olive.

Sylvia melanocephala norissae Nicoll, 1917: Fayyum Warbler – probably only a local morph of momus
Nile Delta region. Extinct since around 1940.
Like momus, but tend to be very reddish.

Sylvia melanocephala valverdei Cabot & Urdiales, 2005 – recently split from melanocephala
From Tiznit (Morocco) south to the Tropic of Cancer, inland to the edge of the Sahara. Resident, but some seasonal movements.
Medium-sized, tail tip quite square. A very pure-colored form, the palest subspecies. Undersides clean white. Matte black cap in males. Juveniles decidedly sandy.

Catalan: Busqueret capnegre, Tallarol capnegre
Catalan (Balears): Busqueret capnegre
Czech: Penice belohrdlá, pìnice bìlohrdlá
Welsh: Telor Sardinia
Danish: melanocephala Sorthovedet Sanger, Sorthovedet sanger
German: Samtkopfgrasmücke, Samtkopf-Grasmücke, Samtkopf-Grasmücken
Greek: Μαυροτσιροβ?κος
English: Black-capped Warbler, Sardinian Warbler
Spanish: Currruca Cabecinegra, Curruca Cabecinegra, Curruca carrasqueña, Curruca de Cabeza Negra
Estonian: sametpea-põõsalind
Basque: Tallarol capnegre , Txinbo burubeltza
Finnish: Samettipääkerttu
Faroese: Høvuðsvartur ljómari
French: Fauvette mélanocéphale
Irish: Ceolaire Sairdíneach
Galician: Papuxa cabecinegra, Tallarol capnegre
Croatian: Crnoglava Grmuša
Hungarian: Kucsmás poszáta
Icelandic: Hjálmsöngvari
Italian: Occhiocotto
Japanese: kurogashirahakkouchou, kurogashiramushikui
Latin: Sylvia melanocephala
Lithuanian: Raudonak? devynbals?
Maltese: Bufula Sewda
Dutch: Kleine Zwartkop
Norwegian: Svarthodesanger
Polish: pokrzewka aksamitna, Pokrzewka czarnoglowa, Pokrzewka czarnog?owa, Pokrzewka ?ródziemnomorska
Portuguese: Felosa dos valados, toutinegra de cabeça preta, Toutinegra-de-cabeça-preta
Romansh: Fustgetta dal chau nair
Slovenian: žametna penica
Albanian: Bilbilthi kokëzi gushëbardhë
Serbian: crnorepa grmuša
Swedish: Sammetshätta

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Spotted on our property Monte Horizonte  

The Zitting Cisticola or Streaked Fantail Warbler (Cisticola juncidis), is an Old World warbler in the genus Cisticola. This genus is sometimes split off with various other southern warbler genera and given family status as the Cisticolidae. This species was previously known as Fan-tailed Warbler , but the current name gives consistency with the many tropical cisticola species.

Zitting Cisticola or Fan-tailed Warbler, Graszanger, Cistensanger, Fuinha-dos-juncos, Buitron

It has a very wide breeding range including southern Europe, Africa outside the deserts and rainforest, and southern Asia down to northern Australia. It is mainly resident, but some East Asian populations migrate south to winter in warmer areas.

Breeding plumage in Kolkata, West Bengal, India.
Non-breeding plumage in Kolkata, West Bengal, India.This species is a rare vagrant to northern Europe, mostly as a spring overshoot. Its European range is generally expanding, although northern populations are especially susceptible to hard winters.

Zitting Cisticolas are very small insectivorous birds. These small passerines are found in tall grassland habitats, often near water. Male cisticolas are polygamous; the female builds a discreet nest deep in the grasses, often binding living leaves into the soft fabric of felted plant-down, cobwebs, and grass. The Zitting Cisticola's nest is a cup shape with a canopy of tied-together leaves or grasses overhead for camouflage; 3-6 eggs are laid.

These warblers are brown above, heavily streaked with black. The underparts are whitish, and the tail is broad, white-tipped and flicked frequently, giving rise to the alternative name for the species. The adult males have less crown streaking and more back marking than the females, but there is no great difference between the sexes or the eighteen geographical races.

Although this species is unlikely to be confused with other warblers in Europe, where it is the only cisticola, it is very similar to other members of its genus. It is best distinguished from its many African relatives by its zit-zit-zit song, given in flight. The song is always the easiest identification criterion for this genus.

These birds are more easily heard than seen, and because of their small size (about 10 cm) not always easy to recognise, particularly outside the breeding season when they seldom emerge from their grasses.

Afrikaans: Landeryklopkloppie
Asturian: Saltón
Catalan: Butxaqueta, Trist
Catalan (Balears): Butxaqueta
Cebuano: tiktikrobong
Czech: Cistovník rákosníkový
Danish: Cistussanger
German: Cistensaenger, Cistensänger, Zistensänger
Greek: (Ευρωπα?κ?) Κιστικ?λη, Κιστικ?λη
English: Common Cisticola, Common Fantail Warbler, Common Fantail-Warbler, Fantail Warbler, Fantailed Cisticola, Fan-tailed Cisticola, Fan-tailed wabler, Fantailed Warbler, Fan-tailed Warbler, Streaked Cisticola, Streaked Fan-tailed Warbler, Streaked Fantail-Warbler, Streak-headed Cisticola, Streak-headed Fantail-Warbler, Wren Grass-Warbler, Zitting Cisticola
Spanish: Buitron, Buitrón, Buitrón Común, Buitrón Ibérico, Cistícola Buitrón
Estonian: rohulind
Basque: Ihi-txoria, Trist
Finnish: Heinäkerttu
French: Cisticole commune, Cisticole des joncs, Cisticole d'Europe
Irish: Ceolaire Earrfheanach
Galician: Carriza dos xuncos, Trist
Croatian: Šivalica
Indonesian: Cici padi, Pikoré, Pipi-pipi kolé
Icelandic: Hálmsöngvari
Italian: Beccamoschino, Beccamoschino comune
Japanese: sekka
Latin: Cisticola juncidis, Cisticola juncidus
Lithuanian: Raibauodeg? nendrimuk?
Mamasa: tíku
Malay: Burung Main Angin
Dutch: Gewone Graszanger, Graszanger, Waaierstaartrietzanger
Norwegian: Cistussanger
Sotho, Northern: Tangtang
Polish: chwastówka, chwastówka (zwyczajna), chwastówka zwyczajna
Portuguese: fuinha dos juncos, Fuinha-dos-juncos
Romansh: Channarel da la cua lada
Slovak: cistovníkovec ryšavý
Slovenian: brškinka
Shona: Kadhi-idhi-i
Albanian: Sqepholli xunktheve
Serbian: Širokorepi cvrcic
Sotho, Southern: Motintinyane
Swedish: Grässångare
Swahili: Kidenenda Zezete
Turkish: Yelpaze Kuyruk, Yelpazekuyruk
Tsonga: Matinti
Xhosa: Unonzwi
Zulu: uNcede

Spotted on our property Monte Horizonte  

The nuthatches are a genus, Sitta, of small passerine birds belonging to the family Sittidae. Characterised by large heads, short tails, and powerful bills and feet, nuthatches advertise their territory using loud, simple songs. Most species exhibit grey or bluish upperparts and a black eye stripe.

Nuthatch, Boomklever, Kleiber, Trepadeira-azul, Trepador azul

Most nuthatches breed in the temperate or montane woodlands of the Northern Hemisphere, although two species have adapted to rocky habitats in the warmer and drier regions of Eurasia. However, the greatest diversity is in Southern Asia, and similarities between the species have made it difficult to identify distinct species. All members of this genus nest in holes or crevices. Most species are non-migratory and live in their habitat year-round, although the North American Red-breasted Nuthatch migrates to warmer regions during the winter. A few nuthatch species have restricted ranges and face threats from deforestation.

Nuthatches are omnivorous, eating mostly insects, nuts and seeds. They forage for insects hidden in or under bark by climbing along tree trunks and branches, sometimes upside down. They forage within their territories when breeding, but may join mixed feeding flocks at other times. Their habit of wedging a large food item in a crevice and then hacking at it with their strong bills gives this group its English name.

Nuthatches are all in the genus Sitta (Linnaeus, 1758), a name derived from sitt?, Ancient Greek for this bird. Nuthatch refers to the propensity of some species to wedge a large insect or seed in a crack and hack at it with their strong bills.

The family Sittidae consists of two subfamilies: the subfamily Sittinae, made up of the "true" nuthatches, and the subfamily Tichodromadinae, made up of only the Wallcreeper. Morphologically intermediate between the nuthatches and the treecreepers, the Wallcreeper's plumage texture and the shape and pattern of its tail suggest that it is closer to the Sittinae. The position of the Wallcreeper is however not fully resolved. Some taxonomists place the nuthatches and treecreepers in a larger group with the wrens and gnatcatchers. This superfamily, the Certhioidea, is supported by phylogenetic studies using mitochondrial and nuclear DNA, and forms a sister clade of the Sylvioidea within the passerine birds. The fossil record for this group is restricted to a foot bone of an early Miocene bird from Bavaria, Certhiops rummeli, which has been identified as an extinct member of the Certhioidea clade.

Species boundaries in the nuthatches are difficult to define. The Red-breasted Nuthatch, Corsican Nuthatch and Chinese Nuthatch have breeding ranges separated by thousands of kilometres, but are similar in habitat preference, appearance and song. They were formerly considered to be one species, but are now normally split into three and comprise a superspecies along with the Krüper's and Algerian Nuthatch. Unusually for nuthatches, all five species excavate their own nests. The Eurasian, Chestnut-vented, Kashmir and Chestnut-bellied Nuthatches form another superspecies and replace each other geographically across Asia. They are currently considered to be four separate species, but the south-Asian forms were once believed to be a subspecies of the Eurasian Nuthatch. A recent proposed change in this taxonomy is a split of the Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch into two species, namely the Indian Nuthatch, Sitta castanea, found south of the Ganges, and the Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch sensu strictu, S. cinnamoventris, which occurs in the Himalayas.

The Nuthatch Vanga of Madagascar and the sitellas from Australia and New Guinea were once placed in the nuthatch family because of similarities in appearance and lifestyle, but they are not closely related. The resemblances arose via convergent evolution to fill an ecological niche.

A 2006 review of Asian nuthatches suggested that there are still unresolved problems in nuthatch taxonomy and proposed splitting the genus Sitta. This suggestion would move the red- and yellow-billed south Asian species (Velvet-fronted, Yellow-billed and Sulphur-billed Nuthatches) to a new genus, create a third genus for the Blue Nuthatch, and possibly a fourth for the Beautiful Nuthatch. Mitochondrial DNA studies have demonstrated that the white-breasted northern subspecies of Eurasian Nuthatch, S. (europea) arctica, is distinctive and also a possible candidate for full species status.

The Red-breasted Nuthatch has a call like a tin trumpet. Nuthatches are compact birds with short legs, compressed wings, and square 12-feathered tails. They have long, sturdy, pointed bills and strong toes with long claws. Nuthatches have blue-grey backs (violet-blue in some Asian species, which also have red or yellow bills) and white underparts, which are variably tinted with buff, orange, rufous or lilac. Although head markings vary between species, a long black eye stripe, with contrasting white supercilium, dark forehead and blackish cap is common. The sexes look similar, but may differ in underpart colouration, especially on the rear flanks and under the tail. Juveniles and first-year birds can be almost indistinguishable from adults.

The sizes of nuthatches vary, from the large Giant Nuthatch, at 195 mm (7.75 in) and 36–47 g (1.3–1.6 oz), to the small Brown-headed Nuthatch and the Pygmy Nuthatch, both around 100 mm (4 in) in length and about 10 g (0.36 oz).

Nuthatches are very vocal, using an assortment of whistles, trills and calls. Their breeding songs tend to be simple and often identical to their contact calls but longer in duration. The Red-breasted Nuthatch, which coexists with the Black-capped Chickadee throughout much of its range, is able to understand the latter species' calls. The chickadee has subtle call variations that communicate information about the size and risk of potential predators. Many birds recognise the simple alarm calls produced by other species, but the Red-breasted Nuthatch is able to interpret the chickadees' detailed variations and to respond appropriately.

The species diversity for Sittidae is greatest in southern Asia (possibly the original home of this family), where about 15 species occur, but it has representatives across much of the Northern Hemisphere. The currently recognised nuthatch species are tabulated below.

Species in taxonomic sequence
Common and
binomial names Image Description Range
(population if known)
Eurasian Nuthatch
(Sitta europaea)  14 cm (5.5 in) long, black eye stripe, blue-grey upper parts, reddish and/or white underparts depending on subspecies. Temperate Eurasia
(10 million)
Chestnut-vented Nuthatch
(Sitta nagaensis)  12.5–14 cm (5–5.5 in) long, mostly pale grey upper parts and mostly whitish underparts, dark eye stripe. Northeast India east to northwest Thailand[20]
Kashmir Nuthatch
(Sitta cashmirensis)  14 cm (5.5 in) long, mostly greyish upper parts, reddish underparts with a paler throat and chin. Eastern Afghanistan to western Nepal
Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch
(Sitta castanea)  13 cm (5.25 in) long, colours vary between the subspecies. The only grey-backed, rufous-bellied nuthatches in their range. Four races found in the foothills of the Himalayas from northeast India to western Yunnan and Thailand have been proposed as a separate species from the nominate form which breeds in northern and central India.
White-tailed Nuthatch
(Sitta himalayensis)  12 cm (4.75 in) long, smaller bill than S. cashmirensis, rufous-orange underparts with unmarked bright rufous undertail-coverts, white on the upper tail coverts is difficult to see in the field. Himalayas from northeast India to southwest China, locally east to Vietnam
White-browed Nuthatch
(Sitta victoriae)  11.5 cm (4.5 in) long, greyish upper parts and mostly whitish underparts. Endemic to Burma.
Pygmy Nuthatch
(Sitta pygmaea)  10 cm (4 in) long, grey cap, blue-grey upper parts, whitish underparts, whitish spot on the nape. Western North America from British Columbia to southwest Mexico
(2.3 million)
Brown-headed Nuthatch
(Sitta pusilla)  10.5 cm (4 in) long, brown cap with narrow black eye stripe and buff white cheeks, chin, and belly, wings are bluish-grey, small white spot at the nape of the neck. Southeast United States and the Bahamas
(1.5 million)
Corsican Nuthatch
(Sitta whiteheadi)  12 cm (4.75 in) long, blue-grey above, and buff below. Male has a black crown and eye stripe separated by a white supercilium; the female has a grey crown and eye stripe. Endemic to Corsica
(3,000–9,000 pairs)
Algerian Nuthatch
(Sitta ledanti)  13.5 cm (5.5 in) long, blue-grey above, and buff below. Male has a black crown and eye stripe separated by a white supercilium; female has a grey crown and eye stripe. Endemic to northeast Algeria
(Fewer than 1,000 pairs)
Krüper's Nuthatch
(Sitta krueperi)  11.5–12.5 cm (4.5–5 in) long, whitish underparts with a reddish throat, mostly grey upper parts. Turkey, Georgia, Russia and on the Greek island of Lesvos.
(80,000–170,000 pairs)
Snowy-browed Nuthatch
or Chinese Nuthatch
(Sitta villosa)  11.5 cm (4.25 in) long, greyish upper parts and pinkish underparts. China, North Korea, and South Korea
Yunnan Nuthatch
(Sitta yunnanensis)  12 cm (4.75 in) long, greyish upper parts and whitish underparts. Endemic to southwest China
Red-breasted Nuthatch
(Sitta canadensis)  11 cm (4 in) long, blue-grey upper parts, with reddish underparts, white face with a black eye stripe, white throat, a straight grey bill and a black crown. Western and northern temperate North America, winters across much of the US and southern Canada
(18 million)
White-cheeked Nuthatch
(Sitta leucopsis)  13 cm (5 in) long, white cheeks, chin, throat, and underparts, upper parts mostly dark grey. Eastern Afghanistan to western Nepal and western China
(10 million)
White-breasted Nuthatch
(Sitta carolinensis)  13–14 cm (5–6 in) long, the white of the face completely surrounds the eye, face and the underparts are white, upper parts are mostly pale blue-grey. North America from southern Canada to Mexico
Western Rock Nuthatch
(Sitta neumayer)  13.5 cm (5.5 in) long. white throat and underparts shading to buff on the belly. The shade of grey upper parts and the darkness of the eye stripe vary between the three subspecies. The Balkans east through Greece and Turkey to Iran
(130,000)
Eastern Rock Nuthatch
(Sitta tephronota)  16–18 cm (6.25–7 in) long, greyish upper parts and whitish underparts, pinkish rump. Northern Iraq and western Iran east through Central Asia
(43,000–100,000 in Europe)
Velvet-fronted Nuthatch
(Sitta frontalis)  12.5 cm (5 in) long, violet-blue above, with lavender cheeks, beige underparts and a whitish throat, bill is red, black patch on forehead. India and Sri Lanka through Southeast Asia to Indonesia
Yellow-billed Nuthatch
(Sitta solangiae)  12.5–13.5 cm (5–5.5 in) long, white underparts, bluish upper parts, yellow beak. Vietnam and Hainan Island, China
Sulphur-billed Nuthatch
(Sitta oenochlamys)  12.5 cm (5 in) long, pinkish underparts, yellow beak, bluish upper parts. Endemic to the Philippines
Blue Nuthatch
(Sitta azurea)
Click here for video 13.5 cm (5.25 in) long, greyish upper parts and whitish underparts. Malaysia, Sumatra and Java
Giant Nuthatch
(Sitta magna) . 19.5 cm (7.75 in) long, greyish upper parts and whitish underparts. China, Burma, and Thailand.
Beautiful Nuthatch
(Sitta formosa)  16.5 cm (6.5 in) long, black-backed with white streaking, bright blue upper back, rump and shoulders, dull orange underparts and paler face. Northeast India and Burma and locally in southern China and northern Southeast Asia

Open Ponderosa Pine woodlands are a habitat for Pygmy Nuthatch.Members of the nuthatch family live in most of North America and Europe and throughout Asia down to the Wallace Line. Nuthatches are sparsely represented in Africa; one species lives in a small area of northeastern Algeria and a population of the Eurasian Nuthatch subspecies, S. e. hispaniensis, lives in the mountains of Morocco. Most species are resident year-round. The only significant migrant is the Red-breasted Nuthatch, which winters widely across North America, deserting the northernmost parts of its breeding range in Canada; it has been recorded as a vagrant in Bermuda, Iceland and England.

Most nuthatches are woodland birds and the majority are found in coniferous or other evergreen forests, although each species has a preference for a particular tree type. The strength of the association varies from the Corsican Nuthatch, which is closely linked with Corsican Pine, to the catholic habitat of the Eurasian Nuthatch, which prefers deciduous or mixed woods but breeds in coniferous forests in the north of its extensive range. However, the two species of rock nuthatches are not strongly tied to woodlands: they breed on rocky slopes or cliffs, although both move into wooded areas when not breeding. In parts of Asia where several species occur in the same geographic region, there is often an altitudinal separation in their preferred habitats.

Nuthatches prefer a fairly temperate climate; northern species live near sea level whereas those further south are found in cooler highland habitats. Eurasian and Red-breasted Nuthatches are lowland birds in the north of their extensive ranges, but breed in the mountains further south; for example, Eurasian Nuthatch, which breeds where the July temperature range is 16–27 °C, is found near sea level in Northern Europe, but between 1,750 and 1,850 m (5,700–6,100 ft) altitude in Morocco. The Velvet-fronted Nuthatch is the sole member of the family which prefers tropical lowland forests.

Cross-section of a Western Rock Nuthatch nest cavity with a mud wall and tunnel across its entrance. All nuthatches nest in cavities; except for the two species of rock nuthatches, all use tree holes, making a simple cup lined with soft materials on which to rest eggs. In some species the lining consists of small woody objects such as bark flakes and seed husks, while in others it includes the moss, grass, hair and feathers typical of passerine birds.

Members of the Red-breasted Nuthatch superspecies excavate their own tree holes, although most other nuthatches use natural holes or old woodpecker nests. Several species reduce the size of the entrance hole and seal up cracks with mud. The Red-breasted Nuthatch makes the nest secure by daubing sticky conifer resin globules around the entrance, the male applying the resin outside and the female inside. The resin may deter predators or competitors (the resident birds avoid the resin by diving straight through the entrance hole). The White-breasted Nuthatch smears blister beetles around the entrance to its nest, and it has been suggested that the unpleasant smell from the crushed insects deters squirrels, its chief competitor for natural tree cavities.

The Western Rock Nuthatch builds an elaborate flask-shaped nest from mud, dung and hair or feathers, and decorates the nest's exterior and nearby crevices with feathers and insect wings. The nests are located in rock crevices, in caves, under cliff overhangs or on buildings. The Eastern Rock Nuthatch builds a similar but less complex structure across the entrance to a cavity. Its nest can be quite small but may weigh up to 32 kg (70 lb). This species will also nest in river banks or tree holes and will enlarge its nest hole if it the cavity is too small.

The Great Spotted Woodpecker is a serious predator of Eurasian Nuthatch nests. Nuthatches are monogamous and pair for life. The female produces eggs that are white with red or yellow markings; the clutch size varies, tending to be larger for northern species. The eggs are incubated for 12 to 18 days by the female alone, or by both parents, depending on the species. The altricial (naked and helpless) chicks take between 21 and 27 days to fledge. Both parents feed the young, and in the case of two American species, Brown-headed and Pygmy, helper males from the previous brood may assist the parents in feeding.

For the few species on which data are available, the average nuthatch lifespan in the wild is between 2 and 3.5 years, although ages of up to 10 years have been recorded. The Eurasian Nuthatch has an adult annual survival rate of 53% and the male Corsican Nuthatch 61.6%. Nuthatches and other small woodland birds share the same predators: accipiters, owls, squirrels and woodpeckers. An American study showed that nuthatch responses to predators may be linked to reproductive strategies. It measured the willingness of males of two species to feed incubating females on the nest when presented with models of a Sharp-shinned Hawk, which hunts adult nuthatches, or a House Wren, which destroys eggs. The White-breasted Nuthatch is shorter-lived than the Red-breasted Nuthatch, but has more young, and was found to respond more strongly to the egg predator, whereas the Red-breasted showed greater concern with the hawk. This supports the theory that longer-lived species benefit from adult survival and future breeding opportunities while birds with shorter life spans place more value on the survival of their larger broods.

Cold can be a problem for small birds that do not migrate. Communal roosting in tight huddles can help conserve heat and several nuthatch species employ it—up to 170 Pygmy Nuthatches have been seen in a single roost. The Pygmy Nuthatch is able to lower its body temperature when roosting, conserving energy through hypothermia and a lowered metabolic rate.

Eurasian Nuthatch on a garden bird feederNuthatches forage along tree trunks and branches and are members of the same feeding guild as woodpeckers. Unlike woodpeckers and treecreepers, however, they do not use their tails for additional support, relying instead on their strong legs and feet to progress in jerky hops. They are able to descend head-first and hang upside-down beneath twigs and branches. Krüper's Nuthatch can even stretch downward from an upside-down position to drink water from leaves without touching the ground. Rock nuthatches forage with a similar technique to the woodland species, but seek food on rock faces and sometimes buildings. When breeding, a pair of nuthatches will only feed within their territory, but at other times will associate with passing tits or join mixed-species feeding flocks.

Insects and other invertebrates are a major portion of the nuthatch diet, especially during the breeding season, when they rely almost exclusively on live prey, but most species also eat seeds during the winter, when invertebrates are less readily available. Larger food items, such as big insects, snails, acorns or seeds may be wedged into cracks and pounded with the bird's strong bill. Unusually for a bird, the Brown-headed Nuthatch uses a piece of tree bark as a lever to pry up other bark flakes to look for food; the bark tool may then be carried from tree to tree or used to cover a seed cache.

All nuthatches appear to store food, especially seeds, in tree crevices, in the ground, under small stones, or behind bark flakes, and these caches are remembered for as long as 30 days. Similarly, the rock nuthatches wedge snails into suitable crevices for consumption in times of need. European Nuthatches have been found to avoid using their caches during benign conditions in order to save them for harsher times.

White-breasted Nuthatch, common in much of North AmericaSome nuthatches, such as the Eurasian Nuthatch and the North American species, have extensive ranges and large populations, and few conservation problems, although locally they may be affected by woodland fragmentation. In contrast, some of the more restricted species face severe pressures.

The endangered White-browed Nuthatch is found only in the Mount Victoria area of Burma, where forest up to 2,000 m (6,560 ft) above sea level has been almost totally cleared and habitat between 2,000–2,500 m (6,560–8200 ft) is heavily degraded. Nearly 12,000 people live in the Natma Taung national park which includes Mount Victoria, and their fires and traps add to the pressure on the nuthatch. The population of the White-browed Nuthatch, estimated at only a few thousand, is decreasing, and no conservation measures are in place. The Algerian Nuthatch is found in only four areas of Algeria, and it is possible that the total population does not exceed 1,000 birds. Fire, erosion, and grazing and disturbance by livestock have reduced the quality of the habitat, despite its location in the Taza National Park.

Deforestation has also caused population declines for the vulnerable Yunnan and Yellow-billed Nuthatches. The Yunnan Nuthatch can cope with some tree loss, since it prefers open pine woodland, but although still locally common, it has disappeared from several of the areas in which it was recorded in the early 20th century. The threat to Yellow-billed is particularly acute on Hainan, where more than 70% of the woodland has been lost in the past 50 years due to shifting cultivation and the use of wood for fuel during Chinese government re-settlement programmes.

Krüper's Nuthatch is threatened by urbanisation and development in and around mature coniferous forests, particularly in the Mediterranean coastal areas where the species was once numerous. A law promoting tourism came into force in Turkey in 2003, further exacerbating the threats to their habitat. The law reduced bureaucracy and made it easier for developers to build tourism facilities and summer houses in the coastal zone where woodland loss is a growing problem for the nuthatch.

Nuthatch, Boomklever, Kleiber, Trepadeira-azul, Trepador azul

Azerbaijani: Adi sitta
Breton: Ar pokerig-kraoñ
Catalan: Pica-soques blau
Czech: Brhlík lesní
Welsh: Cnocell y cnau, Delor y cnau, Telor y cnau
Danish: Spætmejse
German: Kleiber, Spechtmeise
English: Eurasian Nuthatch, European Nuthatch, Nuthatch, Wood Nuthatch
Esperanto: sito
Spanish: Sita de Eurasia, Trepador azul, Trepador común
Estonian: Puukoristaja
Basque: Garrapo, Garrapoa, Pica-soques blau
Finnish: Pähkinänakkeli
Faroese: Rennisveinur
French: Sittelle torchepot, Torchepot
Frisian: Blauspjocht
Irish: Cnóshnag
Gaelic: Sgoltan
Galician: Gabeador azul, Pica-soques blau
Manx: Scolteyder croiyn
Croatian: Brgljez, Obi?ni brglijez
Hungarian: Csuszka
Armenian: Sovorakan Sitegh
Icelandic: Hnotigða
Italian: Picchio muratore, Picchio muratore europeo
Japanese: gojuukara, Gojuu-kara
Cornish: Terrer know
Latin: Sitta europaea
Limburgish: Azuurmees
Lithuanian: bukutis, Vilkutis
Dutch: Boomklever
Norwegian: Spettmeis
Polish: Kowalik, kowalik (zwyczajny), Kowalik skandynawski, kowalik zwyczajny
Portuguese: trepadeira azul, Trepadeira-azul
Romansh: pitgarel
Scots: Sgoltan
Slovak: Brhlík lesnýSlovenian: brglez, evroazijski brglez
Albanian: Zvarritësi i zakonshëm
Serbian: brgljez, brgljez puzavac, Brgljez, puzavac, puzavac
Swedish: Nötväcka

Spotted on Monte Horizonte                       Greenfinch song

The European Greenfinch, or just Greenfinch, Carduelis chloris, is a small passerine bird in the finch family Fringillidae. The genus Carduelis might be split up and in this case, the greenfinches would be separated in their old genus Chloris again.

Greenfinch, Groenling, Grünfink, Verdilhão-comum, Verderón común

This bird is widespread throughout Europe, north Africa and south west Asia. It is mainly resident, but some northernmost populations migrate further south. The Greenfinch has also been introduced into both Australia and New Zealand.

Woodland edges, farmland hedges and gardens with relatively thick vegetation are favoured for breeding. It nests in trees or bushes, laying 3-8 eggs.

This species can form large flocks outside the breeding season, sometimes mixing with other finches and buntings. They feed largely on seeds, but also feed their young insects.

The Greenfinch is 14-16 cm in length and is similar in size and shape to a Chaffinch, but is mainly green, with yellow in the wings and tail. The female and young birds are duller and have brown tones on the back. The bill is thick and conical. The song contains wheezes and twitters, and the male has a "butterfly" display flight.

Other synonyms

Asturian: Verderón
Breton: Ar meleneg Europa
Catalan: Verderol, Verdum
Catalan (Balears): Verderol
Czech: Zvonek zelený
Welsh: Llino Werdd, Llinos gwyrdd, Llinos werdd, Pila gwyrdd, Siencyn cywarch
Danish: Grønirisk
German: Gruenling, Grünfink, Grünling
English: Common Greenfinch, Eurasian Greenfinch, European Greenfinch, Greenfinch, Western Greenfinch
Esperanto: verda fringo
Spanish: Verdecillo, Verderón, Verderon Comun, Verderón Común
Spanish (Argentine): Verderón
Spanish (Uruguay): Verderón
Estonian: Rohevint
Basque: Txorru arrunta, Verdum
Finnish: Viherpeippo
Faroese: Grønígða
French: Verdier, Verdier d'Europe
Irish: Glasán Darach
Gaelic: Glaisean Daraich
Galician: Verderolo, Verdum
Manx: Corkan Keylley Glass
Croatian: Zelendur
Hungarian: Zöldike
Icelandic: Grænfinka
Italian: Verdone, Verdone eurasiatico, Verdone europeo
Japanese: aokawarahiwa, ookawarahiwa
Cornish: Melenek
Latin: Carduelis chloris, Chloris chloris
Maltese: Verdun
Dutch: Groenling
Norwegian: Grønnfink, Svenske
Polish: dzwoniec, dzwoniec (zwyczajny), Dzwoniec zwyczajny
Portuguese: sem nome, verdelhão, verdilhão, Verdilhão-comum
Portuguese (Brazil): Verdelhão
Romansh: Verdaun
Russian: Zelenushka
Northern Sami: Ruonábeibboš
Slovak: Stehlík zelený, Zelenika oby?ajná, zelienka obycajná, zelienka oby?ajná
Slovenian: zelenec
Albanian: Verduni
Serbian: zelentarka
Swedish: Grönfink
Turkish: Florya

Spotted on our property Monte Horizonte          Short-toed Eagle song

This is an Old World species spread throughout the Mediterranean basin and into Russia and the Middle East, and into parts of Asia (Pakistan, India and some Indonesian islands).

Those present on the northern edge of the Mediterranean and other parts of Europe migrate mainly to sub-Saharan Africa north of the equator, leaving in September/October and returning in April/May. In the Middle and Far East the populations are resident. In Europe it is most numerous in Spain where it is fairly common but elsewhere it is rare in many parts of its range. A bird on the Isles of Scilly, Britain, in October 1999 was the first confirmed record for that country.

Short-toed Eagle, Slangenarend, Schlangenadler, Águia-cobreira, Águila culebrera

The Short-toed Eagle is found in open cultivated plains, arid stony deciduous scrub areas and foothills and semi-desert areas. It requires trees for nesting.

In Kinnerasani Wildlife Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh, India.Adults are 63-68 cm long with an 185-195 cm wingspan and weigh 1.7-1.9 kg. They can be recognised in the field by their predominantly white underside, the upper parts being greyish brown. The chin, throat and upper breast are a pale, earthy brown. The tail has 3 or 4 bars. Additional indications are an owl-like rounded head, brightly yellow eyes and lightly barred under wing.

 
In Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary, India.The Short-toed Eagle is an accomplished flyer and spends more time on the wing than do most members of its genus. It favours soaring over hill slopes and hilltops on updraughts, and it does much of its hunting from this position at heights of up to 500 meters. When quartering open country it frequently hovers like a Kestrel. When it soars it does so on flattish wings.

Its prey is mostly reptiles, mainly snakes, but also some lizards. Occasionally small mammals to the size of a rabbit; rarely birds and large insects.

This eagle is generally very silent. On occasions it emits a variety of musical whistling notes. When breeding it lays only one egg, but can live up to 17 years.

The Short-toed Eagle has suffered a steep decline in numbers and range in Europe and is now rare and still decreasing in several countries due to changes in agriculture and land-use. It needs protection. In the middle and far eastern part of its range this species is not yet threatened.

Spotted on Monte Horizonte                        Great Spotted Woodpecker song

The Great Spotted Woodpecker (or Greater Spotted Woodpecker), Dendrocopos major, is a bird species of the woodpecker family (Picidae). It is distributed throughout Europe and northern Asia, and usually resident year-round except in the colder parts of its range. It is not considered a threatened species by the IUCN, being widely distributed and quite common.

Great Spotted Woodpecker, Grote Bonte Specht, Buntspecht, Pica-pau-malhado-grande, Pico picapinos

The Great Spotted Woodpecker is 23-26 cm long, with a 38-44 cm wingspan. The upperparts are glossy black, with white on the sides of the face and neck. A black line zigzags from the shoulder halfway across the breast (in some subspecies nearly meeting in the center), then back to the nape; a black stripe, extending from the bill, runs below the eye to meet this latter part of the zigzag line. On the shoulder is a large white patch and the flight feathers are barred with black and white. The three outer tail feathers are barred; these show when the short stiff tail is outspread, acting as a support in climbing. The underparts are dull white, the abdomen and undertail coverts crimson. The bill is slate black and the legs greenish grey.

Males have a crimson spot on the nape, which is absent in females and juvenile birds. In the latter, the top of the head is crimson between the bill and the center of the crown instead.

Despite its contrasting plumage, the Great Spotted Woodpecker is often an inconspicuous bird. The large white shoulder patch is the feature that most easily catches the eye. When hidden by the foliage, its presence is often advertised by the mechanical drumming, a vibrating rattle, produced by the rapidly repeated blows of strong bill upon a trunk or branch. This is not a dedicated courtship call or challenge, but a signal of either sex to announce its presence. It is audible from a great distance, depending on the wind and the condition of the wood, a hollow bough naturally producing a louder note than living wood. The call is a sharp quet, quet.

The Great Spotted Woodpecker has several living subspecies. The paleosubspecies D. m. submajor lived during the Middle Pleistocene Riss glaciation (250.000 to 300.000 years ago); it was found in Europe south of the ice sheet. It is sometimes treated as a distinct species, but did not differ from the living Great Spotted Woodpecker of Europe except in size; the European subspecies of our time are probably its direct descendants.

The male Great Spotted Woodpecker is almost unmistakeable. The only species that are quite similar are the Syrian Woodpecker (D. syriacus) and the White-winged Woodpecker (D. leucopterus). The former differs in the less well-developed zigzag stripe on the neck, which neither reaches as far towards the center of the breast nor meets the black of the nape as it does in Great Spotted Woodpeckers. The latter has a far more extensive white wing patch.

Females can be distinguished from female Syrian Woodpeckers and White-winged Woodpeckers in the same way as males; the female Sind Woodpecker (D. assimilis) looks also similar but does not have the zigzag stripe reaching the nape. Great Spotted Woodpecker females can also be confused with a female White-backed Woodpecker (D. leucotos). However, the latter species lacks the white shoulder patch, having an all-white lower back instead; it also has a less well-developed zigzag stripe on the neck, just like the Syrian Woodpecker. The female Himalayan Woodpecker (D. himalayensis) is also similar, but it can be distinguished by the same characteristics as the female Syrian Woodpecker.

Immature birds resemble the Middle Spotted Woodpecker (D. medius), the male White-backed Woodpecker, the immature Syrian and White-winged Woodpeckers, and male or immature Lesser Spotted Woodpeckers (Picoides minor, formerly also in Dendrocopos). The first of these species has only an angular cheek spot instead of the zigzag stripe, while the White-backed and Lesser Spotted Woodpeckers lack the white shoulder patch and have a less well-developed zigzag stripe, as described above. The Lesser Spotted Woodpecker also has no red on the abdomen. White-backed Woodpeckers are also larger, while Lesser Spotted Woodpeckers are smaller than immature Great Spotted Woodpeckers. Differences from Syrian and White-winged Woodpeckers are the same as for adults.

Female foraging for grubsIt is an inhabitant of woodlands and parks, depending for food and nesting sites upon old trees. Its actions are jerky, and it hops rather than climbs, leaping forward with one foot just in advance of the other. When a space is crossed the flight is easy and undulating.

The food mainly consists of insects and grubs but also seeds, fruit, scraps, eggs, chicks and small rodents. The woodpecker usually alights on the trunk, working upwards, from side to side, but sometimes will perch in passerine style, when it sits well upright. During the ascent it taps the bark, breaking off fragments, but often extracts its prey from crevices with the tip of its sticky tongue. Beechmast, acorns, nuts and berries are eaten when animal food is scarce.

The nesting hole, neat and round, is bored in soft or decaying wood horizontally for a few inches, then perpendicularly down. At the bottom of a shaft, usually from six to twelve inches in depth, a small chamber is excavated and lined with wood chips. This woodpecker shows no marked preference for particular tree taxa, building its nest in gymnosperms and angiosperms alike.

Nesting trees chosen by this woodpecker almost invariably have soft heartwood and tough sapwood, often due to parasites or diseases that weaken the heartwood only. It is unknown how D. major finds suitable trees, though it is entirely possible that they do so by drumming, making use of the different speed of sound in materials with differing elastic modulus and density. Tree species which are rarely or never used for nesting might simply not have wood with the required properties.

The creamy-white eggs, five to seven in number, are laid in the second half of May. The young cluster at the mouth of the hole and keep a continuous chatter when the parents are feeding them, but when alarmed slip back into the hole. The nest hole is rarely used again, but not infrequently other holes are bored in the same tree.

Other synonyms 

Breton: Ar pilkoad bras, Drailher-koad, pilkoad bras
Catalan: Picot garser gros
Czech: Strakapoud velký
Welsh: Cnocell brith, Cnocell brith mwyaf, cnocell fraith fwyaf, Cobler y coed, Coblyn mwyaf, Coblyn y coed, Cymynwr y coed, Delor fraith, Taradr y coed, Tyllwr y coed
Danish: Stor flagspætte
German: Buntspecht, Grosser Specht, Rotspecht
English: Great Spotted Woodpecker, Great woodpecker, Greater Pied Woodpecker, Red-crowned Pied Woodpecker
Esperanto: granda buntpego
Spanish: Carpintero Picapinos, Pico Picapinos
Estonian: Suur-kirjurähn
Basque: okil handi, Okil handia, Picot garser gros
Finnish: Käpytikka
Faroese: Spetta, Stoór flekkuspæta, stór flekkuspæta
French: Pic épeiche
Friulian: pic de corone
Frisian: grutte eksterspjocht
Irish: mórchnagaire breac, peto real
Gaelic: Snagan Daraich
Galician: Peto real, Picot garser gros
Manx: Snoggeyder, snoggeyder mooar
Croatian: veliki djetao, Veliki Djetlic, Veliki Djetli?
Hungarian: Nagy fakopáncs
Indonesian: Caladi
Icelandic: Barrspæta
Italian: Picchio rosso maggiore
Japanese: akagera, Aka-gera
Cornish: Casek-cos bryth, kasek koes vrith
Latin: Dendrocopos major, Dendrocopus major, Picoides major
Ladino: becalen gran
Lithuanian: Didysis genys, didysis margasis genys
Latvian: dižraibais dzenis
Dutch: Grote Bonte Specht
Norwegian: Barspett, Flaggspett, Stor flaggspett
Occitan: pic mar
Polish: Dzieciol czarny
Portuguese: pica pau malhado grande, Pica-pau-malhado-grande, Picapau-malhado-grande
Romansh: pitgalain grond
Romanian: ciocanitoare mare, cioc?nitoare mare
Russian: pestryj djatel, Pyostry Dyatel
Sardinian: atacadolza, attaccadorza, biccalinna, biccamatta, biccamuru, pappafrumigas, pertunghefustes, pertunghemuru, picculatruncu, pìttau, pittigone, pittulatrunca, pitzulucau, toccatoccafuste, toccheddadòrgia
Scots: cnag mhòr, Snagan daraich
Slovenian: veliki detel
Albanian: qukapiku larosh i madh, Qukapiku larosh kurrizbardhë
Swedish: Större hackspett

Spotted on our property Monte Horizonte  

The jays are several species of medium-sized, usually colorful and noisy, passerine birds in the crow family Corvidae. The names jay and magpie are somewhat interchangeable, and the evolutionary relationships are rather complex. For example, the Eurasian Magpie seems more closely related to the Eurasian Jay than to the Oriental Blue and Green Magpies, whereas the Blue Jay is not closely related to either.

Jay, Vlaamse Gaai, Eichelhaher, Gaio-comum, Arrendajo 

Asturian: Glayu
Breton: Ar gegin derv, kegin, Richard
Catalan: Estornell rosat, Gaig
Catalan (Balears): Gaig
Valencian: Estornell rosat
Czech: sojka, Sojka obecná, Sojka obecný
Welsh: Pioden y coed, Piogen goch, Piogen-y-coed, sgrech y coed, Ysgrech y coed
Danish: Skovskade
German: Eichelhaeher, Eichelhäher
English: Acorn Jay, Black-throated jay, Common Jay, Eurasian Jay, European Jay, Jay, Red-crowned Jay, White-eared Jay
Esperanto: garolo
Spanish: Alcaudón enmascarado, Arrandejo Común, Arrandejo ?omún, Arredajo, Arrendajo, Arrendajo Común, Arrendajo Euroasiático, Arrrendajo
Estonian: Pasknäär
Basque: eskinoso, Eskinosoa, Gaig
Finnish: Närhi
Faroese: gnelliskjóra
French: Geai commune, Geai des chênes, Geai glandivore
Friulian: badascule, gjaie
Frisian: houtekster
Irish: gaio, pega marza, scréachóg, Scréachóg choille
Gaelic: Sgraicheag, Sgriachag Choille
Galician: Gaig, Gaio
Manx: Screeaaghag Cheylley, screeaghag cheylley
Croatian: Šojka, Šojka kreštalica
Hungarian: Szajkó
Icelandic: Skrækskaði
Italian: Ghiandaia, Ghiandaia eurasiatica
Japanese: kakesu, Kake-su, kashi-dori, yama-garasu
Cornish: kegin, Kegyn
Latin: Garrulus glandarius, Garrulus glandarius glandarius
Ladino: gacia
Dutch: Gaai, Vlaamse Gaai
Norwegian: Granskjur, Nøtteskrike
Occitan: gag
Polish: sójka, sójka (zwyczajna), Sójka pospolita, Sójka zwyczajna
Portuguese: gaio, Gaio-comum
Romansh: sgragia
Sardinian: malapiga, Marabiga, mariabiga, melapica, pica, piga
Scots: Scriachag choille, Sgraicheag, sgreuchag-choille
Northern Sami: látteguovssat
Slovak: Šoja
Slovenian: šoja
Albanian: grifsha
Serbian: Kreja
Swedish: Nötskrika
Turkmen: Al sar, alakarga
 

Spotted on our property Monte Horizonte

The Booted Eagle (Aquila pennata) (formerly Hieraaetus pennatus) is a medium-sized bird of prey. It is about 47 centimeters (18 inches) in length and has a wingspan of 120 cm (almost 4 feet). Like all eagles, it belongs to the family Accipitridae.

Booted Eagle, Dwergarend, Zwergadler, Águia-calçada, Aguila calzada

Pale phase Booted Eagle wintering in India, It breeds in southern Europe, North Africa and across Asia. It is migratory, wintering in Sub-Saharan Africa and South Asia. This eagle lays 1-2 eggs in a tree or crag nest.

This is a species of wooded, often hilly countryside with some open areas. It hunts small mammals, reptiles and birds.

The Booted is a small eagle, comparable to the Common Buzzard in size though more eagle-like in shape. Males grow to about 700 grams (1.5 lbs) in weight, with females close to 1 kilogram (over 2 lb). There are two relatively distinct plumage forms. Pale birds are mainly light grey with a darker head and flight feathers. The other form has mid-brown plumage with dark grey flight feathers.

The call is a shrill kli-kli-kli.

Recent genetic research[citation needed] resulted in the reclassification of this species to the genus Aquila from Hieraaetus. As it is the type species of Hieraaetus, should any of the hawk-eagles be retained in a distinct genus a new name for that group would be necessary.

Along with the Little Eagle this bird is one of the closest living relatives of the extinct Haast's Eagle of New Zealand.

Spotted on our property Monte Horizonte

The White Stork (Ciconia ciconia) is a large wading bird in the stork family Ciconiidae, breeding in the warmer parts of Europe (north to Estonia), northwest Africa, and southwest Asia (east to southern Kazakhstan). It is a strong migrant, wintering mainly in tropical Africa, down to the south of South Africa, and also in the Indian subcontinent.

It is a huge bird, 100-125 cm (40-50 in.) tall, with a 155-200 cm (61-79 in) wingspan and a weight of 2.3-4.5 kg (5-10 lbs). It is completely white except for the black wing flight feathers, and its red bill and legs, which are black on juveniles. It walks slowly and steadily on the ground. Like all storks with the exception of the Leptoptilos genus, it flies with its neck outstretched.

White Stork, Ooievaar, Weissstork, Ciguena comun

There are two subspecies (HBW):

Ciconia ciconia ciconia Linnaeus, 1758. Europe, northwest Africa, westernmost Asia; wintering in Africa.
Ciconia ciconia asiatica Severtsov, 1873. West-central Asia; wintering in India.
The Oriental White Stork (Ciconia boyciana), now regarded as a distinct species, was formerly treated as a subspecies of the White Stork.

Notable breeding totals occur mainly in central and eastern Europe, with 52,500 pairs in Poland (6th International Census of White Stork, 2004), 12,000-18,000 pairs in Ukraine, 10,500-13,000 pairs in Belarus, 10,000 pairs in Lithuania, the highest known density of this species in the world, and 8,500 pairs in Latvia. In Estonia the population is also increasing ca. 4000 pairs in 2004. In Germany, 3,000 of the total 3,400 pairs are in the former East Germany. There also exists a consistent number of pairs in Romania. In southwestern Asia, Turkey has the highest population, with 15,000-35,000 pairs. Apart from Spain (14,000 pairs) and Portugal (ca. 10,000 pairs in 2008), numbers in western Europe are much less healthy, with the once sizable Danish population declining to just five pairs in 1995, while re-introductions of zoo-reared birds have halted declines in Italy (30 pairs), the Netherlands (9-12 pairs), and Switzerland (120-160 pairs). A few pairs also breed in South Africa, recent colonists from within the normal wintering population (HBW). North of the breeding range, it is a passage migrant or vagrant in Finland, Great Britain, Iceland, Ireland, Norway, and Sweden, and also west to the Azores and Madeira. Data (except Poland and South Africa): Snow & Perrins 1998.

Threats to the species include the drainage of wetlands and other agricultural intensification, collisions with overhead power lines, use of persistent pesticides (such as DDT) to combat locusts in Africa, and (largely illegal) hunting on passage and the wintering grounds (HBW). Some birds, known in German as Pfeilstorch ("arrow storks"), have been found in Europe with African arrows embedded in their bodies.

The White Stork is one of the species to which the Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds (AEWA) applies.
 
Close-up of head and neck (captive bird)White Storks rely on movement between thermals of hot air for long distance flight, taking great advantage of them during annual migrations between Europe and Sub-Saharan Africa. The shortest route south would take them over the Mediterranean, but since thermals only form over land, storks take a detour. The options are limited, because to the east lies the Arabian Desert, where it is difficult to find food and water – and to the west lies the Atlantic Ocean. This leaves two narrow migration corridors: eastern storks cross the straits of Bosporus to Turkey, traverse the Levant (Syria-Lebanon-Israel-Palestine), and then bypass the Sahara Desert by following the Nile, while western ones fly through the straits of Gibraltar. Either way, the storks can get help from the thermals for almost the entire trip and thus save energy.

White storks breed in open farmland areas with access to marshy wetlands, building a stick nest in trees, on buildings, or special platforms. Because it is viewed as bird of good luck, it is not persecuted, and often nests close to human habitation. In southern Europe, storks' nests can be seen on churches and other buildings. It often forms small colonies. Like most of its relatives, it feeds on fish, frogs and insects but also eats small reptiles, rodents and smaller birds.

The white stork is almost silent except for the noisy mutual bill-clattering when adults meet at the nest.

Spotted on our property Monte Horizonte

The Short-toed Treecreeper, Certhia brachydactyla, is a small passerine bird found in woodlands through much of the warmer regions of Europe and into north Africa. It has a generally more southerly distribution than the other European treecreeper species, the Common Treecreeper, with which it is easily confused where they both occur. Short-toed Treecreeper tends to prefer deciduous trees and lower altitudes than its relative in these overlap areas. Although mainly sedentary, vagrants have occurred outside the breeding range.

Short-toed Treecreeper is one of a group of four very similar Holarctic treecreepers, including the closely related North American Brown Creepers, and has five subspecies differing in appearance and song. Like other treecreepers, Short-toed is inconspicuously plumaged brown above and whitish below, and has a curved bill and stiff tail feathers. It is a resident in woodlands throughout its range, and nests in tree crevices or behind bark flakes, laying about six eggs. This common, unwary, but inconspicuous species feeds mainly on insects which are picked from the tree trunk as the treecreeper ascends with short hops.

Short-toed Treecreeper, Boomkruiper, Gartenbaumlaufer, Agateador comun

All the treecreepers are similar in appearance, being small birds with streaked and spotted brown upperparts, rufous rumps and whitish underparts. They have long decurved bills, and long stiff tail feathers which provide support as they creep up tree trunks looking for insects.

The Short-toed Treecreeper is 12.5 centimetres (5 in) long and weighs 7.5–11 grams (0.26–0.39 oz). It has dull grey-brown upperparts intricately patterned with black, buff and white, a weak off-white supercilium and dingy underparts contrasting with the white throat. The sexes are similar, but juveniles have whitish underparts, sometimes with a buff belly.

The call of this species is a repeated shrill tyt…tyt tyt-tyt and the song of the nominate subspecies is an evenly spaced sequence of notes teet-teet-teet-e-roi-tiit. There is some geographical variation; the song of Danish birds is shorter, that of the Cyprus subspecies is very short and simple, and the North African version is lower pitched. European birds do not respond to latter two song variants.

This species shares much of its range with the Common Treecreeper. Compared to Short-toed, that bird is whiter below, warmer and more spotted above, and has a whiter supercilium and slightly shorter bill. However, identification by sight may be impossible for poorly-marked birds. Vocal birds are usually identifiable, since Common has a distinctive song composed of twitters, ripples and a final whistle and a shree' call rarely given by Short-toed; however, both species have been known to sing the other's song. Even in the hand, although Short-toed usually has a longer bill and shorter toes, 5% of birds are not safely identifiable.

Brown Treecreeper has never been recorded in Europe, but would be difficult to separate from Short-toed Treecreeper, which it much resembles in appearance. Its call is more like Common Treecreeper's, but a vagrant Brown Treecreeper might still not be possible to identify with certainty given the similarities between the three species.

The Short-toed Treecreeper was first described by Christian Ludwig Brehm in 1820. The binomial name is derived from Greek; kerthios is a small tree-dwelling bird described by Aristotle and others, and brachydactyla comes from brakhus, "short" and dactulos "finger", which refers, like the English name, to the fact that this species has shorter toes than the Common Treecreeper.

This species is one of a group of very similar treecreeper species, all placed in the single genus Certhia. Eight species are currently recognised, in two evolutionary lineages, a Holarctic radiation, and a Sino-Himalayan group south and east of the Himalayas. The former group has a more warbling song, always (except in C. familiaris from China) starting or ending with a shrill sreeh. The Himalayan species, in contrast, have a faster-paced trill without the sreeh sound. The Short-toed Treecreeper belongs to the northern group, along with the North American Brown Creeper, C. americana, the Common Treecreeper, C. familaris, of temperate Eurasia, and Hodgson's Treecreeper, C. hodgsoni, from the southern rim of the Himalayas.

There are five subspecies of Short-toed Treecreeper, which are all very similar and often intergrade in areas where their ranges overlap. There is a general cline in appearance from west to east across Europe, with upperparts becoming a darker and colder brown. The currently recognised subspecies are as follows:

C. b. megarhyncha Channel Islands and western Europe in northwest Spain, western and northern France, Belgium, the Netherlands and western Germany. Western birds are paler and more rufous than those further east.
C. b. brachydactyla Continental Europe east of C. b. megarhyncha, Sicily and Crete. The Nominate subspecies; darker and colder brown above and more clearly white-streaked below than C. b. megarhyncha.
C. b. mauritanica North Africa. Darker and colder brown upperparts and more extensively buff-washed underparts than nominate subspecies. Different song.
C. b. dorotheae Cyprus. Greyer upperparts and purer white underparts than nominate. Different song.
C. b. harterti Asia Minor and the Caucasus. Similar to C. b. megarhyncha, but duller rufous upperparts.

Cork Oak is a preferred nesting tree in SpainThe Short-toed Treecreeper breeds in temperate woodlands across Europe from Portugal to Turkey and Greece, and in north west Africa. It prefers well-grown trees, especially oak and avoids pure stands of conifers. Where it shares its European range with Common Treecreeper, the latter species tends to be found mainly in coniferous forest and at higher altitudes.

It is usually found in the lowlands, but breeds locally at up to 900 metres (2950 ft) in Germany, 1800 metres (5900 ft) France and 1400 metres (4590 ft) in Switzerland. In Turkey and North Africa it is a mountain species. The breeding areas have July isotherms between 17–18 oC and 26 oC (63–64 oF and 79 oF).

This treecreeper is essentially non-migratory but post-breeding dispersal may lead to vagrancy outside the normal range. It has occurred as a vagrant to England, Sweden, Lithuania and the Balearic Islands. Three birds on Corsica in 1969 appeared to be of the North African subspecies C. b. mauritanica.

This species has an extensive range of between 1–10 million square kilometres (0.4–3.8 million square mi). It has a large population, estimated at between 4.1–14 million individuals. Population trends have not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the Short-toed Treecreeper is evaluated as Least Concern.

It is common through much of its range, but is rare in the Caucasus and on the smaller Channel Islands. In the west of its range it is spreading north through Denmark, where it first bred in 1946.

Adult foraging on a trunkThe Short-toed nests in tree crevices or behind bark flakes. Old woodpecker nests, crevices in buildings or walls, and artificial nest boxes or flaps are also used.

The nest has an often bulky base of twigs, pine needles, grass or bark, and a lining of finer material such as feathers, wool, moss, lichen or spider web. The eggs are laid between April and mid June (typical clutch 5–7 eggs); they are white with purple-red blotches, 15.6 x 12.2 mm (0.6 x 0.5 in) in size. The eggs are incubated by the female alone for 13 – 15 days until the altricial downy chicks hatch; they are then fed by both parents, but brooded by the female alone, for a further 15 – 18 days to fledging. This species often raises a second brood. The male starts constructing a new nest while the female is still feeding the first brood, and when the chicks are 10-12 days old, he takes over feeding duties while the female completes the new nest.

A Spanish study suggests that forest fragmentation adversely affects the numbers of Short-toed Treecreepers present, as is also the case with the Common Treecreeper. Species that depend on relatively scarce resources, such as tree trunks, only occupy the larger forests, whereas those such as tits and Firecrests that exploit abundant, ubiquitous resources are distributed uniformly through woodlands of all sizes.

The Short-toed Treecreeper typically seeks invertebrate food on tree trunks, starting near the tree base and spiralling its way up using its stiff tail feathers for support. Unlike a nuthatch, it does not come down trees head first, but flies to the base of another nearby tree. It uses its long thin bill to extract insects and spiders from crevices in the bark. Although normally found on trees, it will occasionally feed on walls or bare ground, or amongst fallen pine needles. It may add some seeds to its diet in the colder months.

As a small woodland bird with cryptic plumage and a quiet call, the Short-toed Treecreeper is easily overlooked as it hops mouse-like up a vertical trunk, progressing in short hops, using its stiff tail and widely-splayed feet as support.. Nevertheless, it is not wary, and is largely indifferent to the presence of humans. It has a distinctive erratic and undulating flight, alternating fluttering butterfly-like wing beats with side-slips and tumbles. It is solitary in winter, but in cold weather up to twenty or more birds will roost together in a suitable sheltered crevice, or in a star formation under eaves of buildings.

Spotted on our property Monte Horizonte

The Red-legged Partridge (Alectoris rufa) is a gamebird in the pheasant family Phasianidae of the order Galliformes, gallinaceous birds. It is sometimes known as French Partridge, to distinguish it from the Grey or English Partridge.

It is a rotund bird, with a light brown back, grey breast and buff belly. The face is white with a black gorget. It has rufous-streaked flanks and red legs. When disturbed, it prefers to run rather than fly, but if necessary it flies a short distance on rounded wings.

Red-legged Partridge, Rode Patrijs, Rothuhn, Perdiz roja

This is a seed-eating species, but the young in particular take insects as an essential protein supply. The call is a three-syllable ka-chu-chu.

This partridge breeds naturally in south western Europe, in France and Iberia. It has become naturalised in southern England, where it was introduced as a game species, and has been seen breeding in Lancashire. It is replaced in south eastern Europe by the very similar Rock Partridge (Alectoris graeca). It is a non-migratory terrestrial species, which forms flocks outside the breeding season.

This species breeds on dry lowlands, such as farmland and open stony areas, laying its eggs in a ground nest.

Adult Red-legged Partridges are sandy-brown above, pinkish-buff on the belly, and pale grey on the breast, with a prominent gorget of black streaking, bold rufous and black flank-bars, a cream throat, pink legs, and a red bill and eye ring.

The crown and upper nape of adult Red-legged Partridge are a warm pinkish-brown; the fore crown and lateral edges of the crown are pale blue-grey, and the bird has a narrow off-white supercilium running from above the lores to the sides of the lower nape. The lores have a solid bar of black feathering above a patch of pinkish-red skin. This black colouration continues behind the eye, where it broadens, and then extends down around the throat-patch to meet the upper edge of the gorget. There is a patch of pale buff-brown feathering on the ear-coverts, adjoining the black. The eye is surrounded by a bright red eye-ring.

The chin and upper throat are creamy-white, and are bordered behind and below by a solid black gorget. The black colour continues down onto the lower throat as a patch of broad triangular black streaks on a pale sandy-grey background. Similar, but narrower, black streaks are present on a pale blue-grey background on the upper neck-sides, while the lower neck-sides are warm pinkish-brown. The breast is pale blue-grey, and the belly pinkish-buff. The flanks are marked with bold bright rufous-brown bars, typically between eight and ten; each bar has a narrow black leading edge, the background colour is off-white in front of each bar, and pale grey behind.

The upper parts are plain, unmarked dark sandy-grey. The uppertail-coverts are similar in colour, and contrast with the pinkish-rufous tail-feathers.

The bill is bright red, the iris is medium brown, and the legs are pinkish-red.

Spotted on our property Monte Horizonte.          Azure-winged Magpie song

The Azure-winged Magpie (Cyanopica cyana) is a bird in the crow family. It is 31-35 cm long and similar in overall shape to the European Magpie (Pica pica) but is more slender with proportionately smaller legs and bill.

It has a glossy black top to the head and a white throat. The underparts and the back are a light grey-fawn in colour with the wings and the feathers of the long (16-20 cm) tail are an azure blue. It inhabits various types of coniferous (mainly pine) and broadleaf forest, including parks and gardens in the eastern populations.

Azure-winged Magpie, Blauwe Ekster, Blau Elster, Pega-azul, Rabilargo

It occurs in two population groups separated by a huge geographical region between. One population lives in Western Europe, specifically the southwestern part of the Iberian Peninsula, in Spain and Portugal. The other population occurs over a much larger region of eastern Asia in most of China, Korea, Japan, and north into Mongolia. Recent genetic analysis has shown that the two populations are distinct at species level, under which the Iberian Azure-winged Magpie would take the name Cyanopica cooki, though this change has yet to be formally incorporated in the European bird list.

Often Azure-winged Magpies find food as a family group or several groups making flocks of up to 30 birds, and their diet consists mainly of acorns (oak seeds) and pine nuts, extensively supplemented by invertebrates and their larvae, soft fruits and berries, and also human-provided scraps in parks and towns.

This species usually nests in loose, open colonies with a single nest in each tree. There are usually between 6–8 eggs that are incubated for 15 days.

The voice is a quick fired and metallic sounding kwink-kwink-kwink usually preceded by a single "krarrah".

Other Synonyms

Catalan: Garsa blava
Czech: straka modrá
Danish: Blåskade
German: Blauelster
English: Azure-winged Magpie
Spanish: Rabilargo, Urraca de Rabo Largo
Estonian: siniharakas
Basque: Mika urdina
Finnish: Siniharakka
French: Pie bleue
Galician: Pega azul
Icelandic: Bláskjór
Italian: Gazza aliazzurre
Japanese: onaga
Latin: Cyanopica cyana, Cyanopica cyana cyana, Cyanopica cyana cyanus, Cyanopica cyanus, Cyanopica cyanus cyanus, Cyanopolius cyanus
Lithuanian: M?lynoji éarka
Latvian: Zilsp?rnu žagata
Dutch: Blauwe Ekster
Norwegian: Blåskjære
Polish: sroka blekitna, sroka b??kitna
Portuguese: Pega azul, Pega-azul
Slovak: Straka belasá
Slovenian: modra sraka
Swedish: Blåskata

I need your help. Can you ID the next two raptors?

Thanks

The White Wagtail (Motacilla alba) is a small passerine bird in the wagtail family Motacillidae, which also includes the pipits and longclaws. This species breeds in much of Europe and Asia and parts of north Africa. It is resident in the mildest parts of its range, but otherwise migrates to Africa. It has a toehold in Alaska as a scarce breeder. In some areas, notably the United Kingdom, the sub-species Pied Wagtail (M. a. yarrellii) predominates.

This is an insectivorous bird of open country, often near habitation and water. It prefers bare areas for feeding, where it can see and pursue its prey. In urban areas it has adapted to foraging on paved areas such as car parks.

White Wagtail, Witte Kwikstaart,Bachstelze, Lavandera blanca

It nests in crevices in stone walls and similar natural and man-made structures.

Breeding ranges of the major racesThe White Wagtail was one of the many species originally described by Linnaeus in his 18th century work, Systema Naturae, and it still bears its original name of Motacilla alba. The Latin genus name originally meant "little mover", but certain medieval writers thought it meant "wag-tail", giving rise to a new Latin word cilla for "tail". The specific epithet alba is Latin for "white".

Within the wagtail genus Motacilla, the White Wagtail's closest relatives appear to be other black-and-white wagtails such as the Japanese Wagtail, Motacilla grandis, and the White-browed Wagtail, Motacilla madaraspatensis, (and possibly the Mekong Wagtail, Motacilla samveasnae, the phylogenetic position of which is mysterious) with which it appears to form a superspecies. However mtDNA cytochrome b and NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2 sequence data suggests that the White Wagtail is itself polyphyletic or paraphyletic (i.e. The species is not itself a single coherent grouping). Other phylogenetic studies using mtDNA however suggest that there is considerable gene flow within the races and the resulting closeness makes Motacilla alba a single species. Some studies have suggested the existence of only two groups : the alboides group, with M. a. alboides, M. a. leucopsis and M. a. personata; and the alba group, with M. a. alba, M. a. yarrellii, M. a. baicalensis, M. a. ocularis, M. a. lugens, and M. a. subpersonata.

Willy Wagtail was a colloquial name used in the Isle of Man, replacing the older name ushag vreck, as well as a common name used in Northern Ireland.

This is a slender bird, 16.5–19 cm (6½–7½ in) in length (East Asian subspecies are longer, to 21 cm (8¼ in), with the characteristic long, constantly wagging tail of its genus. The nominate subspecies Motacilla alba alba is basically grey above and white below, with a white face, black cap and black throat.

There are a number of other subspecies, some of which may have arisen because of partial geographical isolation, such as the resident British form, the Pied Wagtail M. a. yarrellii, which now also breeds in adjacent areas of the neighbouring European mainland. Pied Wagtail, named for naturalist William Yarrell, exchanges the grey colour of the nominate form with black (or very dark grey in females), but is otherwise identical in its behaviour. Other subspecies, the validity of some of which is questionable, differ in the colour of the wings, back, and head, or other features. Some races show sexual dimorphism during the breeding season. As many as six subspecies may be present in the wintering ground in India or Southeast Asia and here they can be difficult to distinguish. Phylogenetic studies using mtDNA suggest that some morphological features have evolved more than once including the back and chin colour. Breeding M. a. yarrellii look much like the nominate race except for the black back, and M. a. alboides of the Himalayas differs from the Central Asian M. a. personata only by its black back. It has also been noted that both back and chin change colour during the pre-basic moult; all black-throated subspecies develop white chins and throats in winter and some black-backed birds are grey-backed in winter.

The call of the White Wagtail is a sharp chisick, slightly softer than the version given by Pied Wagtail. The song is a pleasant twittering, more regular in White than Pied, but with little territorial significance, since the male uses a series of contact calls to attract the female.

Eleven subspecies are currently recognised. Information on the plumage differences and distribution of the subspecies of White Wagtail is shown below.
 
M. a. alba Europe from the Iberian Peninsula to Ural Mountains, Turkey, the Levant, Iceland, the Faroe Islands and Greenland's east coast. Some migrate to the south of Europe and Africa down as far as Kenya and Malawi Nominate subspecies 
M. a. yarrellii Great Britain and Ireland, birds in the northern part of the range winter in Spain and North Africa, those further south are resident. Pied Wagtail. Has a much blacker back than the nominate race, black of throat continues on side of neck 
M. a. dukhunensis West Siberian Plain – east Caspian Sea (part of Russia, Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan), winters in the Middle East and India. Indian Pied Wagtail. The upperparts of this subspecies are paler and more blue-grey than nominate, and has it has a continuous unbroken white panel on wing coverts. 
M. a. persica North central and western Iran. Intermediate between M. a. dukhunensis and M. a. personata.
M. a. subpersonata Non-migratory resident of Morocco Moroccan Wagtail. It has more black on the head than the nominate, and resembles a grey-backed, white-throated African Pied Wagtail
M. a. personata Hindu Kush, Tian Shan, Altay Mountains (northern Iran, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Kyrgyzstan, Kazakhstan, Xinjiang) Masked Wagtail. All-black head with a white face mask 
M. a. alboides Himalayas and surrounding area This subspecies has a black back and a lot of black around the head, a white wing panel and white edges on the secondaries and tertials. 
M. a. baicalensis Russia in Lake Baikal area, Mongolia, Inner Mongolia Resembles M. a. leucopsis but grey back and less white on head and wing. 
M. a. ocularis Siberia, Far Eastern (Russia, eastwards from Central Siberian Plateau) expanding into West Alaska 
M. a. lugens Russia Far East (Primorsky Krai, Khabarovsk Krai), Kamchatka Peninsula, Kuril Islands, Sakhalin, Japan (Hokkaid?, Honsh?) Black-backed Wagtail or Kamchatka/Japanese Pied Wagtail, similar to M. a. yarrellii, but has a black eyestripe and white remiges; might have a claim to constitute a distinct species. 
M. a. leucopsis Mainland China, Korean Peninsula, Taiwan, Japan (Ryukyu Islands, Ky?sh?)
expanding into Japan (Honsh?), Southeast Asia, India and Oceania
 
Worldwide distribution of the White Wagtail. Yellow denotes summer range, green year round range, blue winter range.This species breeds throughout Eurasia up to latitudes 75°N, only being absent in the Arctic from areas where the July isotherm is less than 4°oC. It also breeds in the mountains of Morocco and western Alaska. It occupies a wide range of habitats, but is absent from deserts.

White Wagtail is resident in the milder parts of its range such as western Europe and the Mediterranean, but migratory in much of the rest of its range. Northern European breeders winter around the Mediterranean and in tropical and subtropical Africa, and Asiatic birds move to the Middle East, India, and SouthEast Asia. Birds from the North American population also winter in tropical Asia.

This species has a large range, with an estimated gextent of more than 10 million km² (3.8 sq mi). The population size is unknown, but it is believed to be large, as the species is described as "common" in at least parts of its range. Population trends have not been quantified, but the species is not believed to approach the thresholds for the population decline criterion of the IUCN Red List (i.e. declining more than 30% in ten years or three generations). For these reasons, the species is evaluated as Least Concern. The population in Europe appears to be stable. The species has adapted well to human changes to the environment, and has in fact exploited human changes such as man-made structures which are used for nesting sites and increased open areas which are used for foraging.

The most conspicuous habit of this species is a near-constant tail wagging, a trait that has given the species, and indeed the genus, its common name. In spite of the ubiquity of this behaviour, the reasons for it are poorly understood. It has been suggested that it may flush prey, or signal submissiveness to other wagtails. A recent study has suggested instead that it is a signal of vigilance to potential predators.

The exact composition of the diet of White Wagtails varies by location, but terrestrial and aquatic insects and other small invertebrates form the major part of the diet. These range from beetles, dragonflies, small snails, spiders, worms, crustaceans, to maggots found in carcasses and, most importantly, flies in the order Diptera. Small fish fry have also been recorded in the diet. The White Wagtail is somewhat unusual in the parts of it range where it is non-migratory as it is an insectivorous bird that continues to feed on insects during the winter (most other insectivorous birds in temperate climates migrate or switch to more vegetable matter).

White Wagtails are monogamous and defend breeding territories. The breeding season for most is from April to August, with the season starting later further north. Both sexes are responsible for building the nest, which is a rough cup assembled from twigs, grass, leaves and other plant matter. The nest is set into a crevice or hole; traditionally in a bank next to a river, but the species has also adapted to nesting in walls, bridges and buildings. Around 3-8 eggs are laid, with the usual number being 4-6. Both parents incubate the eggs, although the female generally does so for longer and incubates at night. The eggs begin to hatch after 12 days (sometimes as late as 16 days). Both parents feed the chicks until they fledge at around 14 days, and the chicks are fed for another week after fledging.

The White Wagtail makes a cup nest of dried grass, which it lines with soft materials, including animal hair. Its eggs are cream-coloured, often with a faint bluish-green or turquoise tint, and heavily spotted with reddish brown; they measure, on average, 21 x 15 mm (0.83 x 0.59 inches). Though it is known to be a host species for the Common Cuckoo, the White Wagtail typically deserts its nest if it has been parasitised. Scientists theorise that this occurs because the wagtail is too small to push the intruding egg out of the nest, and too short-billed to destroy the egg by puncturing it.

Spotted on Monte Horizonte                                                          Great Tit song

The Great Tit (Parus major) is a passerine bird in the tit family Paridae. It is a widespread and common species throughout Europe in any sort of woodland. It is resident, and most Great Tits do not migrate. In the past this species was considered a ring species with several subspecies covering a wide distribution, but these have now been separated.

The Great Tit was originally described under its current binomial name by Linnaeus in his 18th century work, Systema Naturae. Its scientific name is derived from the Latin parus "titmouse" and maior "larger".

Great Tit, Koolmees, Kohlmeise, Chapim-real, Carbonero comun
 
Race stupae in Kullu District of Himachal Pradesh, IndiaGreat Tits come in many races, but they fall into three groups. Great Tits in temperate Europe and Asia are essentially green above and yellow below. Great Tits in China, Korea, Japan and southeastern Russia are green above and white or yellow-tinged white below, and Great Tits in India and south-east Asia are grey above and whitish below.

The Great Tit is easy to recognize, large in size at 14 cm, with a broad black line (broader in the male) down its otherwise yellow front. The neck and head are black with white cheeks and ear coverts. Upper parts are olive. It has a white wingbar and outer tail feathers. In young birds the black is replaced by brown, and the white by yellow.

It is, like other tits, a vocal bird, and has a large variety of calls, of which the most familiar is a "teacher, teacher", also likened to a squeaky wheelbarrow wheel. In the First Movement of Bruckner's 4th Symphony several Great Tit songs are strung together in a very realistic manner. Interestingly, Great Tits from the two south Asian groups of races do not recognize the calls of the temperate Great Tits, and they may be a separate species.

Parus major cinereus, a subspecies occurring in Java, IndonesiaThe Great Tit has a wide distribution across much of Eurasia. It is found across all of Europe except for Iceland and northern Scandinavia, and then across the Middle East, Northern Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia and parts of central Asia as far as Japan. Another band of distribution occurs through Iran into northern India into Southeastern Asia, whilst another population lives in southern India. The species also occurs over much of China, Korea and Japan, and in Indonesia down into Borneo and as far as the Lesser Sundas.

The Great Tit was unsuccessfully introduced into the United States; birds were set free near Cincinnati, Ohio between 1872 and 1874 but failed to become established. Birds later introduced to the Almaty Province in what is now Kazakhstan in 1960-61 and have become established, although present status is unclear.

Great Tits will join winter tit flocks with other species.

 
Race stupae foraging in foliage in Kolkata, West Bengal, India

Great Tits are primarily insectivores. They prefer protein rich caterpillars during breeding season to feed their young. A study published in 2007 found that Great Tits helped to reduce caterpillar damage in apple orchards by 50%. In England, Great Tits learned to break the foil caps sealing bottles of milk that had been delivered to homes to obtain the cream floating on top.
 
Carrying nesting material race stupae in Kullu District of Himachal Pradesh, IndiaGreat Tits are cavity nesters, breeding in a hole that is usually inside a tree, although occasionally in a wall, rock face, and they will readily take to nest boxes. The number in the clutch is often very large, but seven or eight white spotted red eggs are normal, with bigger clutches being laid by two or even more hens. The bird is a close sitter, hissing when disturbed.

The nestlings are unusual for altricial birds in having plumage coloured with carotenoids similarly to their parents. In most species it is dun-coloured to avoid predation. The nape is yellow and attracts the attention of the parents by its ultraviolet reflectance. This may be to make them easier to find in low light or a signal of fitness to win the parents' attention. This patch turns white after the first moult at an age of two months, and diminishes in size as the bird grows.

The Great Tit is a popular garden bird due to its acrobatic performances when feeding on nuts or seed. Its willingness to move into nest boxes has made it a valuable study subject in ornithology, and it is one of the best studied birds in the world.

Other synonyms

Asturian: Branín, Veranín
Breton: Ar pennglaou
Catalan: Ferrerico, Mallerenga carbonera
Catalan (Balears): Ferrerico
Valencian: Primavera
Welsh: Titw mawr
Danish: musvit, sortmejse
German: Kohlmeise
English: Eurasian Great Tit, Great Tit
Esperanto: granda paruo
Spanish: Carbonero Comun, Carbonero Común, Herrerillo ciáneo
Estonian: rasvatihane
Basque: Kaskabeltz handia
Finnish: talitiainen
Faroese: Stórtita, stórtíta
French: Mésange charbonnière
Frisian: blokfink
Irish: meantán mór
Gaelic: Currac Bhain Tighearna
Galician: Ferreiriño real
Manx: Drean Mooar
Croatian: sjenica velika, Velika Sjenica
Hungarian: Széncinege
Indonesian: Gelatik batu, Gelatikbatu Kelabu
Icelandic: Flotmeisa
Italian: Cinciallegra
Japanese: shijuukara
Cornish: Penglow bras
Latin: Parus major
Limburgish: Zjwartkop
Maltese: Fjorentin
Dutch: koolmees
Norwegian: kjøttmeis
Polish: Bogatka, bogatka zwyczajna, sikora bogatka
Portuguese: Chapim-real
Romansh: maset grond
Sardinian: Acutzaferru
Scots: Currac bhain tighearna
Northern Sami: buoidegaccet, fiskesgaccet
Slovenian: velika sinica
Albanian: trishtili i madh
Serbian: velika sjenica
Swedish: talgoxe